The Russo-Japanese War: World War Zero

A Welcome Letter

Esteemed Delegates,

As Directors, it is our pleasure to welcome you to this Crisis. The fact that so many of you have signed up in such a short time brings us great joy and we can’t wait to see all of your ideas play out in the Far East at the beginning of the 20th century.

We will be diving into what is sometimes referred to as World War Zero, but more officially known as the Russo-Japanese War. Military technology that had been developing rapidly, and other innovations in the communication sector paved the way for a new world of warfare. Not everyone in a powerful position managed to recognise the impact these developments would have - on war, society and hundreds of thousands of lives. Crisis challenges us to step into the shoes of someone else. In retrospective it is easy to judge decisions of leaders because we very rarely know the full context, in which these decisions were made. That is why we consider Crisis to be a unique experience where you can be immersed in precisely that context. In school we are taught history through facts, numbers and events. But how history is made is vastly different – it is often driven by individual people and their flaws: greed, mistrust, deceit, ignorance and pride. 

This Study Guide gives you facts on what has happened up until the 8th of February 1904. Your character traits, role and secret objectives is the base on which you will influence this war as individuals. Will your actions provoke other powers to join this war? Will you be able to negotiate a peace treaty or will you blackmail the other cabinet into surrender? The fate of the world is in your hands. Those who truly understand history are less prone to let it repeat itself. 

And this is all we strive for: for you to come out of this Committee being more aware of this underrepresented part of modern history and the uncountable factors that have shaped the past and will shape the future. 

We hope this Crisis shows you the world through new eyes. Hopefully you will bring some of your insights from 1904 back to our present. After all, historia est magistra vitae.


Truly yours,

Vera Hauser & Amin Tlili


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Table of Contents

  1. The Meiji Restoration

  2. Situation in Russia

  3. Situation in Japan

  4. Situation in:

    a) Shandong Province

    b) Manchuria

    c) Korea

  5. Current Military Technology

  6. Allies & International Affairs

    a) Anglo-Japanese Alliance

    b) Franco-Russian Alliance




  1. The Meiji Restoration

On July 8th 1853 four black ships under the command of the United States Commodore Matthew Perry entered Tokyo Bay. This show of force was a wakeup call for many Japanese, their country now forcefully being opened to western influence released a pent-up need for political reform.

This externalized itself twofold, first by a severe hatred of these foreigners and secondly  with a newly emerged emperor centric intellectual stream, these provided fertile ground for a revolution to grow against the shogunate, which held power since 1603. The phrase Sonno Joi (Expel the barbarians, revere the emperor) became popular among the rebel groups. These groups wished for Japan to revert to full imperial rule and take a strong stance against the foreign barbarians landing on their shores and forcing them into unequal treaties. These groups especially coalesced in the southern domains of Satsuma and Choshu. The resentment against foreigners erupted when a British merchant was cut down in Satsuma domain, the leaders of the domain refused to hand the perpetrator over, to be tried under British law. Upon which the Tokugawa government turned their back on the domain and let the British bombard the capital of Kagoshima to kingdom come. This increased the struggle for political change in Japan a great deal, as in that moment the rebels across the country accepted the truth of the superiority of western technology and a new motto was born Wakon Yosai (Japanese Spirit, Western Technology). 

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These rebellious elements officially formed the Satsuma-Choshu alliance which held enough power financially and militarily to challenge the Tokugawa. At this crucial time the current Emperor Komei died, leaving his only 15 year old malleable child to ascend the throne. Upon this ascension, the Shogun Yoshinobu under political pressure abdicated and returned full power to the Chrysanthemum throne. Young elites from the rebellious provinces coalesced around the emperor and formed what would later become known as the Meiji Cabinet, and these young men from noble Samurai families took it upon themselves to reshape Japan to stand up to the western powers. They abolished outdated class structures and feudalism, introduced democratic and rational government elements, and reformed the army and navy. 

It is thanks to these men and the Emperor that this era of Japanese history would be known as the Meiji Era meaning the Era of Enlightened Rule. 


  1. Situation in Russia

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At the dawn of the 20th century Russia is as it has always been a cold, large and powerful country ruled by the Tsar. This Tsar is Nicholas the second, as firstborn he inherited the throne from his father, Alexander III, in 1894. Alexander the III had ruled over Russia with an iron fist. But regarding foreign affairs Alexander had been a man of peace. Moreover he had realised the importance of diplomacy. As a result at the end of the 19th century Russia was part of every important alliance in Europe. The triple entente (an alliance between Russia, France and England) brought economical progress to Russia and eased the tension between Russia and the rest of the continent. The industrialisation and the new developments in trade agreements brought the possibility to connect the enormous country through railroads. So Tsar Alexander ordered the construction of the Trans Siberian Railway. However he was not meant to see the project to be completed, as he died of kidney failure. 

When Nicholas took over he had big shoes to fill. During the early years of his reign Russia was still profiting from the successes of his father. The economy was doing well and in Europe there was nothing to fear. So quite naturally Nicholas and his advisors looked to the East. China had already been weakened by internal turmoil and the struggle against the European powers (especially in the Opium wars) and was losing the war against the Japanese. The display of Japanese power in its victory over China impressed the young Tsar but also made him realise that there was a new force to be reckoned with. In order to strengthen the remote parts of his territory Nicholas formed an alliance of convenience with a weakened China. Within this alliance Russia obtained the right to further construct the Trans Siberian Railway through Chinese territory and to also patrol the railway with the Russian army. 

 

These external influences had not been anything extraordinary for China as Russia had already leased Port Arthur in 1898 and Germany was involved in some territories on the east coast as well. As it was the time of colonialism, it did not take France and Britain long to get involved in China as well. This led to a further destabilisation of the nation. The Qing dynasty had ruled over centuries but was now only a shadow of its former self. As the Chinese population disliked the growing involvement of foreign countries and saw the weakness of their government, they began to revolt. But Russia was there to help the old establishment. They formed a coalition with other European countries (the Eight Nation army) and put down the so-called Boxer rebellion in 1900. At the end of this puny mission Nicholas had placed an army of one hundred thousand men in China and the eastern territories of Russia. They had also gained control of the region called Manchuria, the traditional homeland of the Qing dynasty, which proved to be of strategic importance in order to keep Japan's expansionist empire in check, for now.

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Within Russia the majority of the population was not too amused by these new expansions of their young Tsar. Although the technological advances improved Russia’s mining and textile industry, a huge part of the country was still mainly relying on their agriculture. And exactly this sector was technologically underdeveloped. As the population was rapidly growing Russian farmers were not able to meet the demands. Therefore the Russian economy was a bit unstable, to put it mildly. It was one poor harvest away from plummeting again. This insecurity benefitted the subversive groups in the big cities like Moscow and St. Petersburg. These groups studied the words of some German called Marx, which, paradoxically, was principally concerned with urban industrial workers. They mainly operated underground but every now and then they planned terrorist attacks which even included an assasination attempt on the late Tsar Alexander.



In the beginning of the year 1904 the Japanese Nation formally requested Russia to remove their troops from Manchuria. To which the Tsar replied Niet. The Japanese were backed by Russia's former allies Great Britain and tacitly the United States. Negotiations between the countries broke down and as tensions rose, some Japanese ships have already set sail towards Port Arthur. Undetected by the small Russian fleet stationed in the pacific, they further advanced towards the Asian mainland. Russia possesses one of the most powerful navies on the world's oceans but most of its mighty ships are stationed in the Baltic sea, almost nine months away from the chinese sea. An insane amount of time considering the event of a surprise attack. But would the Japanese actually consider attacking the big Russian Bear? Could the russian population even withstand the costs of war in such trying times? 


  1. The situation in Japan

Since the Meiji Restoration of 1868, Japan has been modernizing at an unprecedented pace. From a feudal decentralized country controlled by the shogunate and daimyos it has become a centralized modern nation with a powerful emperor reigning and a slightly empowered civil society, as stated by the Charter Oath. 


During this time of transformation the Western powers were looked on as role models. It was believed that their power rested on three main pillars: 

1) constitutionalism (for national unity), 

2) industrialization (for economic growth and wealth) 

3) a strong military (to ensure national security and allow territorial expansion). 

Japanese delegations had  been sent to Europe and the USA to learn the best practices resulting in many successful reforms. Among other aspects of society, education has been reformed. Free public education is now provided for children, who are not only taught the usual subjects but also morality. There, children learn loyalty and duty towards the Emperor, Japan and older Confusian and Shinto traditions. Moreover Shintoism was made the state religion and the Emperor, the direct descendant of the sun goddess Amaterasu, became a living deity. 

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Although the 1889 constitution, a gift from the Emperor to his subjects, had created a two-chambers legislative and included  a few other democratic elements, since 1894 freedom of press and political activism are prohibited by the Safety Preservation Law. It is also worth mentioning that the modification of the constitution is at the discretion of the Emperor.


Japan's breathtaking modernization speed has not gone unnoticed abroad. England was the first country to recognize Japan more as an equal than as an inferior nation and in 1894 both empires signed the Treaty of Commerce and Navigation. Other nations have followed, nullifying the unequal treaties imposed on Japan during the 1850s’. 

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Already in the 1870s’ a debate started within the Japanese elite as to how to further develop the country. The question is not whether to expand the Empire but when to start expanding. For Japan to effectively become an imperialistic power, its military had to be  modernized. The army is directly under the Emperor’s command. Together with the adoption of modern weaponry the iron discipline of the troops made the Japanese forces incredibly efficient.


The first test for this army was the First Sino-Japanese War (1894-95), which was fought over the influence over the Korean Peninsula. The Japanese forces easily defeated the seemingly underequipped Chinese troops. The Treaty of Shimonoseki ended the war. Qing China was forced to give up influence over Korea, pay reparations, open its trading ports and had to give control over Formosa (now Taiwan) and the Liaodong Peninsula to Japan. Russia, France and Germany did not see that with a good eye and Japan had to return the Liaodong Peninsula to China. This event has taught Japan the necessity of forging alliances with great powers in order to protect itself from other great powers. In 1902 the Anglo-Japanese Alliance Treaty was signed. This document states that the two countries would help one another in case of an attack by two or more powers but would remain neutral if the war was with a single enemy.


After the setback of the Shimonoseki Treaty Japan is only wishing to take back the Liaodong Peninsula in order to get rid of Russian influence on Manchuria and Korea. In order to accomplish this Japanese cabinet but mostly the army made the decision to reclaim what they have justly won and as of february 8th 1904 the Imperial Fleet has set sail for Port Arthur.


  1. Current Situation in:

a) Shandong Province:

The Chinese Empire first lost sovereignty over Shandong, a province with strategic access to the Yellow Sea, at the end of the 1st Sino-Japanese war in 1895. Japan briefly occupied the province and maintained control over the port of Weihaiwei, previously one of the Qing army’s major naval bases, for three years. In 1898 Germany contracted a 99-year long lease of the Kiautschou (Jiaozhou) Bay and founded a naval base: Qingdao. The same year Britain also obtained a lease for Weihaiwei. Great Britain’s interest is to balance Russian acquisition of Port Arthur. The current British Commissioner of Weihaiwei is James Haldane Stewart Lockhart. 


b) Manchuria:

Port Arthur (in the district of Dalian, Liaoning province, China) first became an international contention issue following the end of the 1st Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895). After they defeated the troops of the declining Qing Dynasty in Korea, Japanese troops marched and sailed to the Liaodong Peninsula to take over the control of the port, slaughtering many inhabitants of their newly occupied territory. Port Arthur was considered strategic for Imperialist Japan’s expansive ambitions. It allowed Japan to have a foot in Manchuria and was close to the Korean Peninsula. The occupation was officialized in the Treaty of Shimonoseki but was cut short in 1895 by the Triple Intervention of Russia, Germany and France. The Russian Empire did not wait long before signing the Convention for the Lease of the Liaodong Peninsula with China. Port Arthur was just as important for Russia as it was for Japan. It was the first Russian naval base and port located in warm waters (so their boats don’t get stuck in winter). The new occupying power started building a branch of the Chinese Eastern Railway to link Port Arthur to Harbin. After the Boxer Rebellion of 1901 seemingly unending Russian military presence in Manchuria threatens  Japan.


c) Korea:

The Kingdom of Korea is a vassal state. It had remained as close as its suzerain until Japan pressured it into opening up. In 1885, after a failed coup of Korean court’s radicals, China and Japan signed the Li-Ito Convention in order to guarantee the balance of power of both Empires in Korea. The violation of the terms of the Treaty by China during the Tonghak Uprising in 1894 led to the first Sino. Japanese war. A year later, after a final battle in Pyongyang, China was forced to give up on any feudal claims over Korea and recognize Japanese hegemony on Korea.


5) Current military technology

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Most armies at the beginning of the 20th century embraced the supremacy of offensive forms of warfare. The defensive was viewed as the weaker and more passive doctrine (also known as the Cult of the Offensive). Military officers insisted that through leadership, proper training, and a vigorous martial spirit the attacker could overcome any obstacle. Armament included up to date technology such as machine guns, magazine rifles, quick-firing artillery, and mobile heavy artillery. Moreover improvised hand grenades were effectively used in previous scrimmages.

 

For the first time field telephones could be featured prominently in a war. These devices had a tremendous impact on the traditional way of doing things, especially in the defence. There they were used to connect strongpoints with headquarters and supporting artillery batteries.


With all these new military armaments and the fact that ammunition would be a thing to run short of it would be obvious that the infantry would have to fight in trenches, a mean disliked by old field generals. But it quickly became a necessity as remarked by a Russian officer at the time: “the spade takes its place side by side with the rifle, and the spade has become a purely fighting weapon”

 

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It further has to be noted that at the time at hand one part of the army consisted of mounted officers. The cavalry had been heavily criticized as a thing of the past but as it was a position with great social prestige the aristocrats clinged on to the past glories. The Russian cavalry for example were called Cossacks and if it would become clear that many battles are fought in trenches it seems questionable whether they would be of great use.



Although the Japanese Empire is mainly situated on an Island, its military forces were led by former Samurais, experts in the field of ground forces. Before the turn of the century the nation started to upscale their military expenses transitioning to a large scale and mobile army. They had studied the state of the art in Europe and even hired experts to train their forces.

6) Allies & International Affairs

a) Anglo-Japanese Alliance

The Tripartite Intervention by Russia, Germany and France at the end of the Sino-Japanese War dictated the terms of the peace treaty. As the driving force Russia managed to impose terms that prevented Japan from acquiring Port Arthur. With the combined naval forces of the three powers Japan had little choice but to accept the terms, which led to deep humiliation and a deep suspicion towards the Russians for the Japanese.

In order to counterbalance, Japan signed an alliance with Great Britain in 1902, which strengthened Japan’s position considerably. For the Japanese, this alliance means they can turn to the British for expertise, naval knowledge and matériel. At the same time it would keep the Russians and their expansionist policy at bay - at least that was the thought. Great Britain, too, perceives Russia’s policies as colonial overreaching. 

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The uniting factor besides economic side effects is the fact that Japan and Great Britain see Russia as their main rival. England gave up her ‘splendid isolation’ and concluded with Japan a treaty of neutrality (in the event of either party getting involved in a war with a third power) or mutual assistance (in the event of there being more than one enemy, i.e. if France joined Russia). But while the Anglo-Japanese alliance signals Japan’s rise as a great power, there still are doubts among the British populace as to how Britain could ally itself with a non-white, non-christian power on the other side of the world. Meanwhile the Japanese experienced and perceived the British to be paternalistic in their behaviour. As the Empire of Great Britain spans around the globe, there are many borders such as the Russian-Indo border which are under a constant threat. It is therefore in British interests to distract Russia in the East but not enter the war themselves as it would allow Russia to attack those borders with French support. Would an Anglo-French Dual Alliance solve the English worry of having to actively enter war?


b) Franco-Russian Alliance

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The origins of the Franco-Russian Alliance go back over 20 years and root in mutual isolation on the European stage. When Germany, Italy and Austria formed a Triple Alliance in 1879-1882, neither Russia nor France were strong enough to withstand the Triple Alliance individually. To everyone’s surprise the Christian Tsar Alexander III and the atheist Republic of France were able to form the Franco-Russian Alliance - despite somewhat divergent political aims. The opening article of the convention states that the goal of the Franco-Russian Alliance is to maintain “peace in Europe”. By the turn of the century the alliance was in a fragile state. Although Russia and France had acted together in 1895 by protesting against British interests in Egypt and the Tripartite Intervention (with Germany) against Japan, tensions have arisen after France did not lend Russia support in her schemes for the Straits in 1896 and Russia had returned the favour two years later and didn’t help France in the Fashoda Crisis. These tensions allowed another power to position itself as a potential ally for Russia. In 1904 the danger of a Russo-German alliance looms on the horizon, a favourable ally in the eyes of Russian conservatives. However, the French are not willing to give up their ally, especially if giving up meant accepting German Hegemony in continental Europe. While France propped up the Russian economy, France expected Russia to ensure the stability of her borders with Imperial Germany, urging Russia to speed up the building of strategic railways to the Western border, and thus enabling fast troop concentration to prevent any German attack on France. It was furthermore agreed by both Russia and France that they would act in an event of war with England, as it would not only imply action on mainland Europe but on the Russo-Indian border as well. 

Thus, in 1904 Russia’s alliance with France was mainly directed against Germany. France, just like the British with the Japanese, was not compelled to help Russia in any affairs in the Orient and Far East. Should Britain enter a war on the Japanese side, however, France would fulfil her duties - albeit grudgingly - and enter the theatre of war side-by-side with the Imperial Russian Army.

The looming threat of a Russo-German alliance is unsettling for France and England alike, just like entering a Russo-Japanese war. Many French and English colonial territories such as those in Africa border one another. One needn’t imagine the world-wide conflicts and damage this could spark.… One could truly speak of a World War. 

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